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What Is Creatine

Liao, Y.-N

Possible mechanisms include -cell dysfunction caused by decreased -cell mass, oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress, impaired insulin synthesis possibly involving mTOR downregulation as shown in experimental models, disrupted amino acidsensing pathways, and pancreatic atrophy, fibrosis, and apoptosis [45,46,47,48] These alterations reflect a coordinated metabolic adaptation to sustain glucose availability and vital organ function under nutrient deprivation [49]

The synthesis of GSH depends on the cystine/glutamate antiporter system XC (SLC7A11), and the regulation of this system can enhance or weaken cells